Migration
Families
may experience migration and separation in different ways. Families
may move together or separately in a planned or unplanned manner, the latter usually in
contexts of war or political instability. Parents will sometimes send children
back to the home country for disciplining. Furthermore, families may experience
repeated relocation, like families with a member in the army or doing
missionary work. Each case should be considered separately for the implications
to children. Youth experience migration in differing ways.
Adolescents have a harder time adjusting to changes in country of residence and parental migration than younger children (Dreby, 2007; Pollock and Van Reken, 2001).
Moving at this age implies a shift in the appropriate rules and expectations for becoming a successful adult and establishing social relationships with peers both of which are very important to youth. If possible avoid moving adolescents right before key transitions such as middle-school or high-school graduations. Adolescents envision going through these rites of passage with their peers, they serve as natural moments of transition and closing of cycles.
In a study in Austria, immigrant boys experience depression more than girls (Stefanek, Strohmeier, Fandrem and Spiel, 2012).
Boys may have a harder time adjusting possibly because of gender differences in levels of expression of feelings. Girls tend to be socialized to talk more about their emotions than boys. Parents should be on the lookout for boys’ depressive symptoms.
Adolescents have a harder time adjusting to changes in country of residence and parental migration than younger children (Dreby, 2007; Pollock and Van Reken, 2001).
Moving at this age implies a shift in the appropriate rules and expectations for becoming a successful adult and establishing social relationships with peers both of which are very important to youth. If possible avoid moving adolescents right before key transitions such as middle-school or high-school graduations. Adolescents envision going through these rites of passage with their peers, they serve as natural moments of transition and closing of cycles.
In a study in Austria, immigrant boys experience depression more than girls (Stefanek, Strohmeier, Fandrem and Spiel, 2012).
Boys may have a harder time adjusting possibly because of gender differences in levels of expression of feelings. Girls tend to be socialized to talk more about their emotions than boys. Parents should be on the lookout for boys’ depressive symptoms.
Separations
Immigrant families experience different kinds of separation due to various types of migration strategies. Some parents may decide to migrate first and then bring children over, send children first to learn the culture or send children back to the home country for disciplining. Although being sent back may provide youth with a grounded sense of cultural identity and may allow them to appreciate what their parents’ emigration has provided them, it may also result in resentfulness, lack of adaptation back in the origin country and further behavioral problems (Landale, Thomas and Van Hook, 2011; Mazzucato and Schans, 2011). Parental emigration may be felt as a loss for youth left behind and upon reunification may be alienated by having to re-attach to an unknown caregiver (Dreby, 2007; Michael, 2009). Ideally separation should be avoided or if unavoidable then handled carefully.
Grief
It is important to provide outlets for youth to mourn the loss of the home country and express their feelings in a supportive environment (Miller, 2013; Pollock and Van Reken, 2001).
Moving from one country to another involves a loss of the home country, the people, set of norms, etc. Preparing a good exit is very important to help youth through the transition process. It is also normal for parents and children to experience grief or sadness after emigrating. Children in particular may try to hide their negative feelings to avoid burdening parents, since parents express such high hopes in the new country. Furthermore, youth may have expectations upon arrival regarding family dynamics, like increased family time, which might not occur exactly as hoped for (Michael, 2009). This may lead to frustration, resentment, anger and depression.
Trauma
Leaving one country to live in another one can be a highly stressful traumatic experience for a child as we have mentioned above. Specifically, migration can be conducive to depression or other negative behaviors (Batista-Pinto Weise, 2010). Immigrant children may also be dealing with traumatic events that occurred before emigrating or during the migration process. Many migrants, particularly refugees and asylees, leave their home country because of war, political instability and safety reasons. Children may have experienced traumatic events like the death of a close relative, physical and/or sexual abuse before or during emigration. Migrating youth are particularly vulnerable to abuses along the way to the destination country, especially girls and unaccompanied migrant youth. It is important to identify if these types of situations have occurred and build space and time for the adolescent to work through these experiences. Look for professionals who can help guide youth through a healing process, like mental health care professionals, therapists, counselors or pastors.
Bridging Refugee Youth and Children’s Services
http://www.brycs.org/
Bridging Refugee Youth and Children’s Services
http://www.brycs.org/
Repeated Migration
Some families experience repeated movement across countries (Pollock and Van Reken, 2001). This is the case for many families with members in the army, missionary organizations, academia, business and diplomatic positions. Children in these situations face a different set of obstacles related to the constantly changing frames of cultural reference like feelings of rootlessness, identity crises and a delayed adolescence. Conversely, many of these families have institutional support and resources that may help make the transitions easier. It is important for parents to help build a constant and supportive family life so children may have a safe haven wherever they are and are able to engage other cultures from it. If returning to the home country often, it is better to have “home base”. Some scholars refer to this highly mobile migrant group of children as Third Culture Kids (TCKs), because they grow up immersed in at least one culture other than their parents and thus build a third one based on mixing the other two. In a sense, all children of immigrants fall into this category due to processes of acculturation. The distinguishing feature is this groups’ high mobility; some of these families may relocate across countries more than once a year.
General information on Third Culture Kids (TCKs)
http://tckid.com/what-is-a-tck.html
Online magazine highlighting the third culture experience.
http://www.denizenmag.com/third-culture-kid/
References
Batista-Pinto Weise, Elizabeth. (2010). Culture and Migration: Psychological Trauma in Children and Adolescents. Traumatology, 16(4):142-152.
http://tmt.sagepub.com/content/16/4/142.full.pdf+html
Dreby, Joanna. (2010). Divided by Borders: Mexican Migrants and their Children, Berkeley, University of California, 311 pp. http://www.ucpress.edu/book.php?isbn=9780520260900
Faulstiche Orellana, Marjorie, Barrie Thorne, Anna Chee and Wan Shun Eva Lam. (2001). “Transnational Childhoods: The Participation of Children in Processes of Family Migration”. Social Problems, 48(4):572-591. http://www.sesp.northwestern.edu/docs/publications/3445846804bd0e836e0552.pdf
Landale, Nancy; Thomas, Kevin J. A.; Van Hook, Jennifer. (2011). “The Living Arrangements of Children of Immigrants”. Future of Children, 21(1), 43-70.
http://futureofchildren.org/futureofchildren/publications/docs/21_01_03.pdf
Mazzucato, Valentina and Schans, Djamila. (2011). Transnational Families and the Well-being of Children: Conceptual and Methodological Challenges. Journal of Marriage and Family, 73: 704-712. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2011.00840.x/abstract
Michael, Suzanne. (2009). Continuities and Discontinuities: Patterns of Migration, Adolescent Immigrant Girls and their Family Relationships. Qualitative Social Work, 8(2):229-247. http://qsw.sagepub.com/content/8/2/229.short
Miller, L. D. (2013). “I Am Not Who I Thought I Was”: Use of Grief Work to Address Disrupted Identity Among Hispanic Adolescent Immigrants. Clin Soc Work J, 41: 316-323. http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs10615-012-0410-5
Pollock, David C. and Van Reken, Ruth E. (2001). Third Culture Kids: Growing Up Among Worlds. Finland: Nicholas Brealey. http://nicholasbrealey.com/london/third-culture-kids.html
Stefanek, E., Strohmeier, D., Fandrem H. and Spiel, C. (2012). Depressive symptoms in native and immigrant adolescents: the role of critical life events and daily hassles. Anxiety, Stress & Coping, 25(2):201-217. http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10615806.2011.605879#.U1sW0_ldV1Y
General information on Third Culture Kids (TCKs)
http://tckid.com/what-is-a-tck.html
Online magazine highlighting the third culture experience.
http://www.denizenmag.com/third-culture-kid/
References
Batista-Pinto Weise, Elizabeth. (2010). Culture and Migration: Psychological Trauma in Children and Adolescents. Traumatology, 16(4):142-152.
http://tmt.sagepub.com/content/16/4/142.full.pdf+html
Dreby, Joanna. (2010). Divided by Borders: Mexican Migrants and their Children, Berkeley, University of California, 311 pp. http://www.ucpress.edu/book.php?isbn=9780520260900
Faulstiche Orellana, Marjorie, Barrie Thorne, Anna Chee and Wan Shun Eva Lam. (2001). “Transnational Childhoods: The Participation of Children in Processes of Family Migration”. Social Problems, 48(4):572-591. http://www.sesp.northwestern.edu/docs/publications/3445846804bd0e836e0552.pdf
Landale, Nancy; Thomas, Kevin J. A.; Van Hook, Jennifer. (2011). “The Living Arrangements of Children of Immigrants”. Future of Children, 21(1), 43-70.
http://futureofchildren.org/futureofchildren/publications/docs/21_01_03.pdf
Mazzucato, Valentina and Schans, Djamila. (2011). Transnational Families and the Well-being of Children: Conceptual and Methodological Challenges. Journal of Marriage and Family, 73: 704-712. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2011.00840.x/abstract
Michael, Suzanne. (2009). Continuities and Discontinuities: Patterns of Migration, Adolescent Immigrant Girls and their Family Relationships. Qualitative Social Work, 8(2):229-247. http://qsw.sagepub.com/content/8/2/229.short
Miller, L. D. (2013). “I Am Not Who I Thought I Was”: Use of Grief Work to Address Disrupted Identity Among Hispanic Adolescent Immigrants. Clin Soc Work J, 41: 316-323. http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs10615-012-0410-5
Pollock, David C. and Van Reken, Ruth E. (2001). Third Culture Kids: Growing Up Among Worlds. Finland: Nicholas Brealey. http://nicholasbrealey.com/london/third-culture-kids.html
Stefanek, E., Strohmeier, D., Fandrem H. and Spiel, C. (2012). Depressive symptoms in native and immigrant adolescents: the role of critical life events and daily hassles. Anxiety, Stress & Coping, 25(2):201-217. http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10615806.2011.605879#.U1sW0_ldV1Y